The Problems Faced By Archaeologists in Reconstructing Anglo Saxon Society between the 5th And 7th Centuries from Anglo Saxon Cemetery Evidence Essay Example for Free

The Problems Faced By Archaeologists in Reconstructing Anglo Saxon Society between the 5th And 7th Centuries from Anglo Saxon Cemetery Evidence Essay Conquest of England by the Anglo Saxon began in middle of the 5th century. During this time Celts inhabited England and had been ruled by the Romans for more than 360 years. Due to the short lived rule by the roman, the roman civilization started to fade away hence left the most of the towns abandoned. This included most of the villas in the countryside and the Celts went back to live in hill forts and other protected wooden stockades. There was deliberate attempt by Arnold to explain the changes that dated from roman Britain to early Anglo-Saxon England based on an elite migration which is considered as a type of a late reception of processual archaeology as illustrated by Scull. There are a large number of ornaments found in a number of graves and what is so clear about them is that the origin of these ornament is definite in a given district or sate. Also these ornaments are clearly a descendant of the people of which these burial sites are from. Hence it can be conclusively be said that these people did obtain their ornaments right away from their own locality and not outside the district they live in. a problem will arise in deciding on the validity of the archaeological interpretation of the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain. Here, the owner of these ornaments is unclear as whether they are the Saxons, Angles or Romano-Britons who are the owners of these ornaments. Lethbrigde’s interpretation would help pin point the real owners of the artifacts and the material remain1. These were done with other archaeologists who in many ways faced a number of challenges. Some of these challenges included the following:               Ã‚  Reconstruction of clothing; there were variations noted on the dress fasteners in the women’s clothes. The clothes had one, two or three brooches that were worn in various positions on the chest and others on the shoulder. Dress-fastening for the men was limited to sleeve fasteners and buckles. Reconstructing clothing from this evidence meant that the range of dress fastening was dictated by a number of factors. These factors include social identity and the mode of display. It was further argued that the dress fasteners placed in graves may have been chosen on other reasons rather than the functional relationship to the garment being worn or the direct relationship of the grave clothing and the daily wear. The textiles of which we have knowledge about had been made into clothing. Though there is a possibility to reconstruct some of the clothing through the remains in graves by using the position of dress fasteners like buckles ( cook 1974; Bell 1981 ; Owen Crocker 1986) Damage of skeletons during excavation. The excavation of skeletons was exceedingly hard as a result of the conditions of the subsoil and dry weather. The skeletons were also not well preserved because of the circum-neutral pH of the local subsoil and the ploughing which later brought about disturbance. The subsoil surface was also experiencing compaction by the box scrappers. The hard and dry subsoil conditions meant that it was difficult to excavate and remove the skeletal remains without sustaining some damage. The removal of skeletons followed a certain process. The box scrapper could first reveal the site in an inadvertently manner and later the whole site cleaned with hoes. This was to be followed by base planning at 1:50 and then excavation by hand. The excavation was done by use of trowels, small chisels and brushes. The fully excavated skeletons in grave pits were then photographed in black and white and drawn at 1:10. The whole process seemed cumbersome and at the end no acc urate results could be sought. At times the burials sites were discovered accidentally hence damage of these artifacts and bones are more likely to happen with the use of metal detecting activities. The requirement of these archaeological studies is that the whole burial grounds should be intact to maximize data recovery process. Methods for protecting and close examination of statigraphy should have been in place. This would minimize the problem of retrieval and analysis of organic materials such as textiles. With the increasing human activities such as formal settlement and cultivation such burial sites are more prone to destruction and hence limited information base. Identification of (vertical status related) and horizontal (gender, age) social groupings. Understanding the physical conditions of the people in the Anglo Saxon was a big problem. Provision of reports on the age, physical height and the biological gender of the dead person and the time of death have only been achieved through the scientific analysis and improved technology. It was also impossible to have information on any signs of genetic traits and deformity or trauma present in the skeleton record. Transformation of these kinds of data into cultural interpretation remains a problem that need to be addressed. Evidence interpretation; Coming into an agreement upon realization of a notable phenomenon was another problem. Taking the case of the suspended floor model where various persons argued out on the purposes on various sections buildings, we see how each person tried to argue out. This argument hindered the ease of putting an all one agreed story on the Anglo Saxon. It leads to inclusion of argument from more than one person hence limiting the accuracy desired. There was an argument on the kind of floors that the vernacular buildings had and also an attempt to relate them to the 12th and 13th century buildings. The earliest surviving buildings which date to the late 12th and early 13th centuries do not have planked ground floors (Walker 2009) and so it will be remarkable if majority of the buildings in the 6th century England possessed them. Difficulty arose in an attempt to explain the validity of the pit as to whether it served as an air-space or not. Decisive evidence mainly on the subject matter about superstructure of Grubenhauser will tend to depend on factors of plausibility. Suspended floors could end up being elusive evidence. Grouped Grubenhauser archaeological features will tend to compromise more than one form of superstructure (West 1986; 116-21). This will in the end require re-evaluation that consists of a detailed study of the Grubenhaus fills to ascertain the artifacts in relation to the date and function of the structures. Re-evaluation is time consuming and costly, hence the study team will be forced to redo their study once more based on a given number of micro morphological studies to come up with exaction records. One notable example of misinterpretation of evidence id that of tertiary deposition of Grubenhaus fills that had little relationship with the use of the building. It brought out this contradictory evidence to the lime light and hence dispelling the notion of assuming little matter of great importance (Tipper, 2004:107) Location of the ancient cemeteries challenged the reconstruction of the Anglo Saxon society. Distinct boundaries where miscreants were disposed based on the customs which were never recorded and documented made it hard to identify areas to focus. The problem of Charters references to access places which exhibit patterns of local practice and dialect was also of big concern. There is a prevalent view that the local estates and the hundreds within which they were grouped are products of the late Anglo Saxon period1. This could be challenges by a series of execution sites with origins scientifically dated to the 7th century. Hence the territorial limits denied the archaeologists a chance of finding the near to exact places of carrying out their work. It proved a hard task to locate cemeteries as it required appreciation of the above ground appearance. This area as usual was characterized by mounds and mortuary houses the only problem arose on how these areas of dignity were maintained o ver time. Putting into record such phenomenon was a hard task for the study team for there existed little management evidence such as paths, internal divisions or vegetation or even buildings associated with burial sites. Other notable challenge was to contrast the difference between shrines as a form of cemetery structures and other mortuary houses (Hirst1985:24). Instances of cremation rendered the archeological study to be narrow; Some instances of the burials have indicated that there was close contact with the Roman culture. This can be exemplified by the right of inhumation which was practiced by the native Romanized population. Cremation was a common practice especially outside the empire5. As recorded y the different times of the AD200-400 in northern and central Europe. There was inconsistency in the differences presented by the Germanic graves. This further led to the much unnoticeable variance of the whole archeological results. Although in some areas burials of different orientations have been brought out in instance where there existed a large cemetery for example at Krefeld-Gellep, in Westphalia. In such instances careful examination of the artifacts and bones was needed in order to ascertain and draw analogies from the historical and ethnographic sources. (McKinley 1994:72-81; Williams 2004b). Cremation involved a sequence of materials practices and places, Williams 2001.this practice did reconfigu re the deed’s identity in many ways including burning the cadaver and treatment of ashes. As seen the most valuable evidence in the cinerary urns included the burnt bones, contrary to the statement the bones sometimes were absent suggesting a possibility that the practice took place without necessarily the body being present (Mckinely2003:11-12). There are notable fragmented remains in most of the urns and the end result is that they offer invaluable information to the study team. Although the positive thing about the remains includes giving information on such variable such as number of individuals present, age and sex. From the estimated weight and degree of fragmentation and also the colour of the bone pyre technology and post cremation aspects can be reconstructed easily (McKinley 1994:82-6). There has been revelation of a wide range of practices such as sacrificed animals placed on pyres. Wild animals such as fox and deer were the ones mostly used to offer sacrifice. Conclusion               Ã‚  As much as Anglo-Saxon religion is difficult to perceive, religion is an important aspect in our daily lives. This implies that religion can’t be ignored as it forms part of our fundamental shaping of our behaviors. There is need to have some level of local institutions that are charged with the sole responsibility of maintaining and running cultic sites such as cemeteries. The enhancement of the understanding of Anglo-Saxon religion will depend on the level of the various responses both social and political changes that aim to safeguard the past, present and the future history that is within the society. Closer exploration of the religious ecological context will tend to shed light on the understanding of the Pre-Christian paganisms. References Carver, (2005). Sutton Hoo. A seventh- Century princely burial ground and its context. London British Museum.Cemeteries such as Westerwanna in the Elbe-Weser region, Preetz in Holstein, Pritzier in Mecklenberg, Suderbrarup and Borgstedt in Schleswig, all consist virtually entirely of cremation; see C. Zimmer-Linnfeld, Westerwanna 1 (Hamburg, i960); J. Brandt, Das Urnengrdberfeld von Preetz in Holstein, Offa Bucher n.f. i6(Neumunster, i96o);E. Schuldt, Pritzier (Berlin, 1955); and A. Genrich, Formenkreise und Stammcsgruppen in Scbleswig-Holstein, Offa Bucher n.f. 10 (Neumunster, 1954). In central Europe this was also the general practice; see K. Godlowski, The Chronology of the Late Roman and Early Migration Periods in Central Europe (Cracow, 1970 Hook, D, (1998). The landscape of Anglo-Saxon England Leicester: Leicester university press Lethbrigde, TC, and PALMER W.M. (1929), Excavation in the Cambridge Dykes. VI Bran Ditch. Second report proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society 30:78-93. R. Pirling, Das romisch-frankische Graberfeld von Krefeld-Gellep, Germaniscbc Dtnkmakr der Volkervanderungszeit 2 (1966) and 8 (1974). Source document

Comparing the Heroes in The Dream of the Rood and Beowulf Essay

The  Heroes in The Dream of the Rood and Beowulf  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In The Dream of the Rood, the poet has added elements of the idealized heroic death (as exemplified in Beowulf and The Battle of Maldon) to the crucifixion. He has also eliminated details of the story that tend to render Christ as a figure of pathos, in order to further Christ's identification with the other glorious warriors Anglo-Saxon poems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When a hero meets his death, for example, he is usually surrounded by faithful retainers (as is Byrhtnoth) or at least one steadfast companion, such as Beowulf's Wiglaf. The gospel clearly states that Jesus died ignobly, in the most humiliating fashion possible, and that his disciples kept themselves from Golgotha in order not to be implicated alongside him. The crowd mocked Christ with fake veneration. The poet must realize, however, that his audience will not accept a Lord who did not die a radiant death, and was not universally lamented. He says instead that "all creation wept, bewailed the king's death -- Christ was on the cross." After Jesus is taken down, the poet asserts that a grave was carved for him "of bright stone", and that the soldiers sung a dirge for him in the eventide. Men came "from afar, hastening to the prince." [165] The rood extols upon Christ's shining beauty as he died. Very noble, but there's little biblical suppo rt for this account. Also rooted in the heroic tradition is the subsequent gold-plating and raising of the cross. Just as Beowulf asked that a "bright mound" be erected in his honor, and the gold in the dragon's cave becomes as a monument to him, so do the disciples unearth and gild the rood. The idea of God himself lacking a proper gold-drenched headstone was unthin... ...e most such works, it tries to convince heathens to convert by co-opting the extant value system. Christ emerges as a powerful king who will stoically suffer for us, and reward us, for the price of our piety. Sources Cited and Consulted Heaney, Seamus, trans. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2000. Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson (eds.). "The Dream of the Rood: or A Vision of the Cross." A Guide to Old English, 6E. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2002. 256-263. O'Keeffe, Katherine O'Brien. "Heroic values and Christian ethics." The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Ed. Malcolm Godden and Michael Lapidge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 107-125. Wheelock, Jeremy I. "The Word Made Flesh: 'Engel Dryhtnes' in The Dream of the Rood." English Language Notes. March 2000, Vol. 37 Issue 3: 1.

Political parties and Voting Behavior Essay

Thesis: What are the predominant political factors that affect the voting behavior of a population ? Hypothesis : Pluralism, ideology, religion and social factors are the predominant political factors that affect the voting behavior of the population. Introduction : Pluralism in voting population is a natural phenomena in European and American cosmopolitan societies . Elsewhere, in Asia and far- East ethnic diversity too exists. A consequence of this pluralism is multi-party political system .Interests of different segregated sections of society based on issues, ethnicity, public policy, loyalties etc. are represented by different political parties. This should ideally and practically lead to a multi-party system . This system is obviously more democratic. The voters choice is increased . The political parties thus become more competitive against each other. This makes the political parties more accountable to the people in order to win their ‘trust and confidence’. This pluralism affects voting behavior and has serious impacts on national politics. Voters choices are often prejudiced and biased. This is quite reasonable as we are living in an imperfect society. The American Elections : Voting behavior in Democrat and Republican elections ‘A loss of American voter’s faith in Democracy.’ The American voters today don’t identify themselves with either Democrats or Republicans according to many surveys and statistical studies. The Presidential elections have seen a decline in the participation of eligible voters , as observed since the 1950s and 1960s. The eligible voting population has increased in America but the number of registered voters is decreasing. Dissatisfied by the Democrats and Republicans not bringing effective reforms the voters have lost interest in politics as a consequence of politicians. â€Å"Does this phenomena indicate the American citizens disillusionment with a predominantly much polarized American two-party democracy?† According to political scientists the political non-participation of Americans is a matter of concern for the health of American political system. The Americans are now cynical and distrustful of politics, politicians and the Government. Experts believe such a trend could lead to the breakdown of American political system. Contrary to the belief of these experts many Democrat and Republican partisan parties claim they have the ability to draw supporters for their parties. They argue that the American’s have thus not lost faith in Democracy. Viewpoints. Voting Behavior. Introduction. ‘The ‘God-gap’ difference between the Republicans and the democrats’ The Republicans are known for their conservative ideology and policies whereas the democrats are known for their liberal ones. It is a well established public opinion that the more religiously an American is inclined the more likely he is to vote for the Republicans and the other way round for the Democrats. Karlyn Bowman a public relations expert raised a question in this context at a conference for media men. This ‘God-gap’ had overshadowed many other issues and changed the voting patterns in the November, 2006 Presidential elections. Thus the ‘God-gap’ has begun to play an important role in the American public life. Since 1992, this gap , between the frequent and the not so frequent worshipers, regardless of their religious background has become prominent. Conservative leaders were the first to guess this voter behavior and to capitalize on it. The talk became all the more popular with the Pundits, intellectuals, liberal strategists and academics – the chattering class ! They added fuel to the fire.9/11 and it’s aftermath established the God- gap as a decisive public opinion maker. Thus, the public power of religion got firmly established in the American society. In the elections to come neither the Conservatives nor the Democrats can afford to underplay it. The November 2006 Presidential elections shall be followed with contests between the Republicans and Democrats to woo a sizeable vote-bank ; the one created by the ‘God-gap’. In Politics, the ‘God-gap’ Overshadows Other Differences New York Times. By Peter Steinfels. Published December 9, 2006. ‘The Religious vote base’ The Republicans have often used their religion conservative base to win votes. Consequently Mr. George Bush won his second term in the office. This has concerned the democrats and they have lately been working on the religious vote. White evangelical and the born-again Christians again voted for the Republican candidate in the last two elections. Nationwide exit polls show that nothing has changed in favor of the Democrats. Around 70-72 percent of the evangelical and the born again Christians voted for the Republican Presidential candidate in the last two elections. Deliberate call for a religious vote by some Democratic senate candidates did win them a significant proportion of Roman Catholics and white mainline Protestants votes in states like Ohio and Pennsylvania. However trends are changing, say, in many states like Colorado. Most American’s Bobby Clark, Deputy Director of a liberal group in Colorado says,† Most Americans are now a pretty moderate people.† The Rev. Troy Newman called the election day ‘a bloody Tuesday’. His anti-abortion Operation Rescue lost favor with American’s in South Dakota and California. The Democratic parties liberal anti-abortion policies were endorsed by the people. Religious Voting Data Show Some Shift, Observers Say. New York Times. By Laurie Goodstein. Published November 9, 2006. ‘Cashing on the African-American vote-bank’ African-American’s constitute nearly half the votes in South Carolina. A remarkable portion ! This phenomena of the African-American vote-bank is now well recognized both by the Republicans and the Democrats. The racial divide still exists and is well exploited. The candidates have no compunctions visiting black churches accepting their endorsements before the elections. They even don’t hesitate in identifying with king Martin Luther! Empirical data suggests that the African –American vote has been with the Democrats who have more actively fought for their cause. The Conservatives are taking no chances now . The situation in South Carolina mirrors the entire America. The African-American voters can no longer be taken for granted. They are now armed with education and leaders. They have made significant contributions to all spheres of American life- Arts, science, literature, Sports etc. In a nut-shell they are now enlightened about their rights and privileges. Black and Bruised. The New York Times, Monday, December, 24, 2007.by Joann Wypijewski. Published February 1, 2004. ‘The Feminist ideology ’ John Kerry actively involved himself in a campaign – the Women vote bank. He was establishing his credentials presiding over women audiences. His enthusiastic drive to win over the much contested vote-bank – Women. This bastion, the Democrats claimed rightly belonged to them Mr. Bush in his campaign had projected himself as the best candidate to protect the Americans against the terrorists. The 9/11 scare was worst to affect the women. Mr. Bush’s campaign as the best candidate to protect the American’s against the terrorists caught favor with women. According to New York Times/ CBS Polls Democrats polled less, loosing ground with Democratic parties most secure women-votes. Their has been a remarkable change in the trend. To quote statistics in 2000, 54 percent of women voted for Al Gore while only 43 percent voted for Mr. George Bush, the republican candidate. The news of the 9/11 terrorist attack and the unacceptable terrorist attack against children in Russia, used provocatively by the Republicans created a considerable challenge for Mr. John Kerry and the Democrats. Mr. Bush gave a fight to the Democrats on their own strong hold-the women-vote. Mr. Bush used his success in toppling the Afghan’s in yet another novel way. He projected the new found freedom of the Afghan women to woo feminist sentiments. Statistics show that the voter turnout of women has increased over the last Presidential elections. The two parties are working on the idea to polarize the feminist activism in their favor. On the other front they are drawing more and more women to the ballot box. More and more women candidates are being fielded in elections for public offices. Hillary Rodham Clinton , the wife of former President Mr. Bill Clinton is contesting in the next Presidential elections. She is being viewed as a strong contender for the position. This scenario echoes the general mood of the American people. Thus the feminist ideology holds ground affecting elections and political parties. The New York Times, Kerry in a Struggle for a Democratic Base: Women, by Katherine Q.Seelye. Published September 2, 2004. Conclusion : We can thus conclude that Pluralism, ideology, Religion and social factors are the predominant factors affecting voter behavior. Pluralism exists across European and American politics and even in Asia and the far- East. The concept of pluralism elucidates that a multi-party system has both positive and negative impacts on voters behavior. The voter has the right to choose the party he trusts. Although he might be biased and prejudiced in his attitudes. Neither the Democrats nor the Republicans are now able to associate themselves with the common American. The decline in participation of eligible voters population in America since the 1950s and 960s suggest that the American voter has lost faith in the political system- politics, politicians and the Government. Since 1992, the ‘God-gap’ factor has begun to play an important role in American elections. Both the Democrats and Republicans are creating and fuelling this gap to cash on votes. The Democrats and Republicans are playing their Religious cards. The electorate is swinging between the Democrats and Republicans. The last two Presidential elections saw 70-72 percent Christian hardliners voting for the conservative Republicans. The situation is changing in favor of the Democrats with the American people becoming more moderate in their values. The African-American voter is now valued due to his predominance in states like South Carolina. The women voters actively participated in the last few Presidential elections according to statistics. 9/11 and it’s aftermath left a deeper influence on women voters.

Adolf Hitler Impacts and Influences Essay - 1292 Words

Adolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889 in Austria where he was baptized into the Catholic church. He was the son of an Austrian customs official, and dropped out of high school at age sixteen. As a young man, Hitler dreamed of being an artist. He applied to the Vienna Academy of the Arts twice and was rejected both times. He made a meager living by painting and selling postcards in Linz, Vienna, and Munich. Hitler affected Germany greatly because of his political offices. He founded the Nazi party and served as chancellor until the death of President Paul Von Hindenburg when he became the sole dictator of Germany. Hitler affected millions of people worldwide through his political and social views and actions. He was brutal, assertive, and†¦show more content†¦By 1921, Hitler was leading the National Socialist German Workers Party. He was a very effective speaker and captivated audiences for hours. He was persuasive and told people what they wanted to hear. Because of this, he was a very successful propaganda artist. Driven by Germanys loss in WWI and humiliation, which was a result of the terms in the treaty of Versailles, Hitler found many followers who sympathized with his cause. After his political group failed an attempt to overpower the Bavarian government, he was arrested and jailed for nine months. While imprisoned, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle), which was his autobiography, and it was full of his political ideas as well as the policies for what would become the Nazi organization. Later, he would use this book to spread his ideas and indoctrinate people into the Nazi party. At one point in time, he tried to destroy all other books in Germany. He required that Mein Kampf be taught in the schools, and children learned at a very young age that they were to be Nazis and support Hitler. Hitler gained even more power when he was named chancellor by President Paul von Hindenburg. Hitler used propaganda as a strong tool, and right at the center of his campaigning were anti-Semitic messages and a hatred for communism. In 1933, there was a mysterious fire at the Reichstag building, which allowed Hitler to instate the Enabling Act. This act allowed him to create laws without theShow MoreRelatedHitler s Impact On The World War II1636 Words   |  7 Pagesa square, saluting and chanting Hitler s name. World War II has begun and many Germans hope for improvements in the economy. Their leader is Adolf Hitler. Adolf Hitler, dictator of Germany in World War II, was a powerful speaker who caused over 5 million deaths in concentration camps. Though Hitler s impact can be felt in modern times, the roots of his atrocious behavior began at childhood—more specifically—high school. 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